The History of Wicca: Wicca in the 20th Century

Following the Witch Trials of the 15th and 16th centuries, any surviving pagans went so deeply underground, figuratively speaking, that they seemed to have disappeared entirely. However, a set of beliefs doesn’t die that easily. The 20th century saw a renewed interest in witchcraft and paganism. But the birth of modern Wicca was due purely to the efforts of a dedicated few.

Margaret Murray and Her Contribution to Modern Wicca

Dr. Margaret Alice Murray was a British anthropologist and Egyptologist in the first half of the 20th century. She is most famous for her work The Witch Cult in Western Europe, which she published in 1921. This was the first time in centuries that anyone had looked at witchcraft or paganism with anything resembling an unbiased light.

She proposed the idea that there was a massive and organized resistance to the Christian Church during the Middle Ages in Europe. Murray’s research had led her to believe that the pagan religions, rather than simply being a hoax perpetrated by the Church, were indeed ancient beliefs, beliefs that some had kept alive. She felt very strongly that, in ancient times, before the coming of Christianity, the pagans were an organized religion.

While some of her theories (such as the secret conspiracy of pagans amongst the English kings) proved to be a little far-fetched, and sometimes completely mistaken, she did shine a light onto pagan practice. While it was probably not an organized religion, many forms of paganism, some of which can be called witchcraft, were practiced in ancient Europe.

Though often criticized for her work, Dr. Murray remained very convinced of her position. She later expanded upon her views in her second book, The God of the Witches, in 1931.

Gerald Gardner’s Contribution to Modern Wicca

When the final laws against witchcraft were repealed in England in 1951, those who practiced pagan religions were free to speak for themselves. One of the people who did so was Dr. Gerald Brousseau Gardner. This man, who sometimes operated under the Craft name Scire, was a British anthropologist, archaeologist, writer, occult expert, and he described himself as both a Witch and a Wiccan.

Gardner had spent much of his life in Asia, where he developed a strong interest in native peoples and their magical practices. After he retired and returned to England, he was initiated into the Wiccan faith by the New Forest Coven in 1939. Gardner believed that this faith was, if not a direct continuance, at least related to the beliefs of ancient Europe. Fearing that these beliefs were in danger of being lost forever, he set about making sure that didn’t happen.

In 1954, Gardner published the first truly influential book on Wicca, Witchcraft Today. Five years later, he authored The Meaning of Witchcraft. He devoted himself to Wicca and its beliefs, and initiated many notable High Priestesses into Wicca, among them:

• Doreen Valiente;
• Patricia Crowther;
• Eleanor Bone; and
• Lois Bourne.

Later in life, Gardner would found his own tradition of Wicca, rewriting and reworking many of the rituals he had been taught. Gardnerian Wicca combined the teachings of the New Forest Coven with Freemasonry, Ceremonial Magic, and the writings of occult expert Aleister Crowley.

 

His work has faced some criticism. There have been some who claimed that Gardner made up Wicca entirely, and still others say he took credit for the work done by Aleister Crowley. These charges are probably not true, but even if there were, Gardner’s impact on modern Wicca cannot be denied.

 

Often referred to as the “Father of Wicca”, Gerald Gardner is respected within most Wiccan circles today.

 

Raymond Buckland and Wicca in North America

 

In North America, the first person to publically admit to being Wiccan was Raymond Buckland. Initiated by High Priestess Monique Wilson in Scotland in 1963, Buckland returned home to the United States shortly after. He brought Gardnerian Wicca with him, founding the first lineaged Gardnerian coven in the US.

 

Buckland is an author of some repute. He first began publishing in 1969 with A Pocket Guide to the Supernatural. He published several more books in the following years, and has published a book in almost every year since this time. Though he is best known for Buckland’s Complete Guide to Witchcraft, first published in 1986, he is currently the author of more than forty books.

 

In 1973, Buckland founded his own Wiccan tradition. Seax-Wica (Seax Wicca) is based upon symbolism from Anglo-Saxon sources, but it does not claim to be a reconstruction of any religion practiced during that era. The entire tradition was published in his book The Tree: The Complete Book of Saxon Witchcraft. Today, Seax-Wica has thousands of practitioners around the world.

 

There are many other people who have contributed to Wicca’s growth and expansion in the 20th century, such as Scott Cunningham, Sybil Leek, Gavin and Yvonne Frost, and Janet and Stewart Farrar. Modern Wicca survived the 20th century through the efforts of many people who are dedicated to its beliefs and practices.

The History of Wicca: The Malleus Maleficarum

In 1486, two German monks wrote a book that was soon to become infamous. Jakob Sprenger and Heinrich (Institor) Kramer created the Malleus Maleficarum (The Witches’ Hammer) to give very definite instructions for the persecution of witchcraft during the Witch Trials. This book only ignited the already delicate situation in Europe, adding fuel to the raging persecution of innocents.

The Witches’ Hammer was divided very carefully into three separate parts.

The First Part of the Malleus Maleficarum

The first section of this book concludes that there are three things that must be present for witchcraft to be practiced. These are:

• A witch;
• The Devil; and
• The permission of God.

The Malleus Maleficarum declares that to not believe in witchcraft must be heresy. It goes on to discuss several matters regarding what witches can and cannot do. Some items prominently discussed are:

• A witch’s copulation with the Devil;
• Whether witches can impede the ability to have children;
• Whether children can be produced by Incubi and Succubi;
• The various ways in which witches can kill children in the womb; and
• Whether witches can sway the minds of men.

This first part of the infamous book has several chapters addressing the sexual aspects of witchcraft, revealing a certain obsession of the authors.

 

The Second Part of the Malleus Maleficarum

 

There is much detail concerning how witchcraft is worked, how it can be detected, and the ways in which it may be undone or warded against. This is the purview of the second section of the Malleus Maleficarum. Most of the items dealt with here are pulled simply from the imagination of the authors. For example, there is a chapter that focuses purely on how witches entice innocents to follow them, making a pact with evil. This, of course, is the purest nonsense.

 

There are many other interesting, yet completely incorrect details in this section of the Malleus Maleficarum. For example:

• How witches transport from place to place in an instant;
• The ways in which witches are able to prevent a woman from conceiving;
• How witches, in the guise of midwives, kill children or offer them to devils; and
• The various means of controlling the weather and animals.

Following these descriptions of the powers of witches are remedies for each.

 

The Third Part of the Malleus Maleficarum

 

This is by far the most famous section of the book. It is in the third section of the Malleus Maleficarum where you can find descriptions relating to the prosecution of witches, both in civil and clerical courts. Trials are explained in detail, beginning with an account of who the proper judges for a trial of this kind might be. From there, the book continues:

• Beginning the trial process;
• The examination of witnesses; and
• Eliciting a confession.

It should be noted that the Malleus Maleficarum suggests that the testimony of anyone should be accepted. Even those who could give testimony in no other case were permitted to speak when it came to trials regarding witchcraft. Mortal enemies, criminals, and even children could testify, and their words would be taken as evidence against the accused.

 

The Malleus Maleficarum was submitted to the University of Cologne, the appointed censor of the time, for approval. However, the Theological Faculty refused to acknowledge the ridiculous work. Undaunted, Kramer and Sprenger simply forged the approbation of the entire faulty. Unfortunately, this forgery was not discovered until the year 1898. By then, the damage had been done, and the Witch Trials continued upon their timeline.

 

It would be hundreds of years before the persecutions would die down enough for some of the beliefs from early Europe to be resurrected. When they were, in the 20th century, one of the new adaptations was Wicca.

The History of Wicca — The Witch Trials

Far after the coming of Christianity, and with the introduction of the bull against witches by Pope Innocent VIII in 1484, the hysteria regarding witches and other pagans began to rise. The smear campaigns carried over from early Europe right into the Middle Ages. Then, in the 15th and 16th centuries, actions against the so-called ‘witches’ became truly violent.

Heinrich Insititoris Kramer and Jakob Sprenger

In 1486, two German monks who would later become infamous, produced an incredibly anti-witch book. Heinrich Kramer and Jakob Sprenger wrote the Malleus Maleficarum (The Witches’ Hammer), which was a concoction full of ideas regarding the proper persecution of witches. This book, which was composed of three parts, covered such things as:

• Various ways in which witches may kill children conceived in the womb;
• Whether witches can sway the minds of men;
• How witches prevent procreation; and
• The proper way to persecute and punish witches.

This book was submitted to the appointed censor of the time, the University of Cologne. However, the majority of the professors refused to have anything to do with such a dubious work. They refused approbation for the Malleus Maleficarum. Undaunted, Kramer and Sprenger simply forged the approval of the entire faculty. Unfortunately, this forgery was not discovered until 1898. By then, the damage had been done.

 

The Impact of the Malleus Maleficarum

 

The publication of The Witches’ Hammer ignited hysteria across most of Europe. For nearly three hundred years, suspected pagans and witches were actively targeted; it didn’t seem to matter if anyone was actually guilty or not. Entire villages, suspected of being under the influence of witchcraft, were put to death.

 

As an example, in 1586, the archbishop of Treves concluded that witches were responsible for the severe winter in his region. After using torture to obtain ‘confessions’ from 120 men and women, he executed these alleged witches. They were all burned to death, as the law dictated. At the time, the laws in Scotland and Continental Europe enforced burning at the stake, while England and New England hung witches instead.

 

There are many estimates regarding the number of people actually killed during the Witch Trials. Numbers as high as 9 million have been suggested. Most likely, the number is approximately 500,000. Obviously, these could not all have been pagans or witches. In truth, there were probably only a very few pagans and witches actually killed during this time. Most people executed for witchcraft would have been God-fearing people.

 

Very often, the charge of witchcraft was used to get rid of someone who could not otherwise be targeted. There was virtually no defense against witchcraft. Once you were accused, you were almost certain to be found guilty. However, being accused of witchcraft wasn’t an automatic death sentence. Only 48%-50% of trials ended in execution. Others were given what were seen as ‘appropriate’ punishments, such as:

• Flogging;
• Stoning;
• Public humiliation; or
• Loss of all status and material wealth.

The timeline of the Witch Trials is somewhat difficult to pin down, as not everything was properly recorded. However, it is certain that as Europe was caught in the fires of persecution, many innocent people were killed.

 

In 1604 King James I passed the Witchcraft Act, which promised harsh sentences for anyone convicted of witchcraft. However, in 1736 this was repealed and replaced with an act that declared witchcraft did not exist, and to pretend to have occult powers was to face being charged with fraud. By this point, belief in witchcraft had faded into the background, but it never really disappeared.

 

For many years, it was thought that the beliefs of old Europe had been left in the past. However, belief doesn’t die that easily. The beliefs were dormant, passed on by a dedicated few, only to be revived and adapted in the 20th century. One of these adaptations was a ‘New Age’ religion known as Wicca.

 

Wiccan Sabbat Ritual Recipes — Harvest Pumpkin Pie Recipe

Pumpkins are plentiful in the fall and early winter. And with all the jack-o-lanterns being carved in late October, there is certainly no shortage of pumpkin flesh. In this creative recipe, either canned or homemade pumpkin purée can be used.

This recipe has been created specifically with Wiccans and Pagans in mind. It uses the spices of the season, in addition to the pumpkin that is so common in the fall. It is the perfect addition to either a Autumnal Equinox or Samhain feast.

Making the Crust and Decorations for the Pumpkin Pie

The following ingredients should be gathered close at hand:

• 2 deep-dish unbaked pie shells; if frozen, they should be thawed; they must be deep-dish, with a 4-cup capacity, or additional shells will be needed
• 1 egg yolk, lightly beaten

Directions:

1. Preheat oven to 350° F. Roll out one of the pie shells on a well-floured surface, or between two sheets of wax paper. Using a very sharp knife, cut out leaves and a large pumpkin, as shown in the picture. Feel free to get creative. Leaves and pumpkins are not the only designs that are possible. Perhaps ghouls and ghosts, and other symbols of the dead, for Samhain?
2. Place all these cutouts on a baking sheet and brush with the egg yolk. Bake until browned. They brown fairly quickly, so watch carefully. Once finished, remove the decorations from the baking sheet and cool completely.
3. Increase the heat of the oven to 400° F. Take the second pie shell and line the crust with foil after placing it in a pie plate. Fill the foil with dried beans to hold the foil in place. Bake for 8 minutes, then remove the beans and foil. Prick the dough in several places with a fork, and bake for 6 minutes longer. Cool completely on a wire rack.

Making the Filling for the Pumpkin Pie

The following ingredients should be gathered close at hand:

• 16 oz pumpkin purée (homemade or canned)
• 2/3 cup firmly packed brown sugar
• 1/3 cup granulated sugar
• 1 tablespoon flour, all-purpose
• 2 teaspoons ground cinnamon
• ½ teaspoon ground ginger
• 2 teaspoons ground nutmeg
• ½ teaspoon ground cloves
• ½ teaspoon salt
• 2 teaspoons vanilla extract
• 1/3 cup milk
• 1 cup heavy cream
• 2 eggs, lightly beaten

Directions:

1. Combine pumpkin purée, brown sugar, granulated sugar, flour, cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, cloves, and salt in a large bowl, mixing well. Add vanilla, milk, cream, and eggs and blend completely. Pour mixture into the cooled crust. Bake at 400° F until the filling is set and a toothpick inserted into the center comes out clean, approximately 45 minutes. Transfer to a wire rack and cool completely.
2. Arrange the decorations on the top of the pie. In the case of the example shown, place the leaves around the edge of the pie, and the pumpkin in the center. The decorations can be pressed into the filling slightly, if necessary, to keep them in place. This pie is excellent when served with whipped cream.

Pumpkin pie is a favorite in the fall of most Wiccans and Pagans, especially around the time of the Autumnal Equinox and Samhain. Though it can be served all year round, in the fall it is especially appropriate, and makes a wonderful addition to the ritual feast table, especially when paired with Harvest Mead and stuffed potatoes.