The History of Wicca: Wicca in the 20th Century

Following the Witch Trials of the 15th and 16th centuries, any surviving pagans went so deeply underground, figuratively speaking, that they seemed to have disappeared entirely. However, a set of beliefs doesn’t die that easily. The 20th century saw a renewed interest in witchcraft and paganism. But the birth of modern Wicca was due purely to the efforts of a dedicated few.

Margaret Murray and Her Contribution to Modern Wicca

Dr. Margaret Alice Murray was a British anthropologist and Egyptologist in the first half of the 20th century. She is most famous for her work The Witch Cult in Western Europe, which she published in 1921. This was the first time in centuries that anyone had looked at witchcraft or paganism with anything resembling an unbiased light.

She proposed the idea that there was a massive and organized resistance to the Christian Church during the Middle Ages in Europe. Murray’s research had led her to believe that the pagan religions, rather than simply being a hoax perpetrated by the Church, were indeed ancient beliefs, beliefs that some had kept alive. She felt very strongly that, in ancient times, before the coming of Christianity, the pagans were an organized religion.

While some of her theories (such as the secret conspiracy of pagans amongst the English kings) proved to be a little far-fetched, and sometimes completely mistaken, she did shine a light onto pagan practice. While it was probably not an organized religion, many forms of paganism, some of which can be called witchcraft, were practiced in ancient Europe.

Though often criticized for her work, Dr. Murray remained very convinced of her position. She later expanded upon her views in her second book, The God of the Witches, in 1931.

Gerald Gardner’s Contribution to Modern Wicca

When the final laws against witchcraft were repealed in England in 1951, those who practiced pagan religions were free to speak for themselves. One of the people who did so was Dr. Gerald Brousseau Gardner. This man, who sometimes operated under the Craft name Scire, was a British anthropologist, archaeologist, writer, occult expert, and he described himself as both a Witch and a Wiccan.

Gardner had spent much of his life in Asia, where he developed a strong interest in native peoples and their magical practices. After he retired and returned to England, he was initiated into the Wiccan faith by the New Forest Coven in 1939. Gardner believed that this faith was, if not a direct continuance, at least related to the beliefs of ancient Europe. Fearing that these beliefs were in danger of being lost forever, he set about making sure that didn’t happen.

In 1954, Gardner published the first truly influential book on Wicca, Witchcraft Today. Five years later, he authored The Meaning of Witchcraft. He devoted himself to Wicca and its beliefs, and initiated many notable High Priestesses into Wicca, among them:

• Doreen Valiente;
• Patricia Crowther;
• Eleanor Bone; and
• Lois Bourne.

Later in life, Gardner would found his own tradition of Wicca, rewriting and reworking many of the rituals he had been taught. Gardnerian Wicca combined the teachings of the New Forest Coven with Freemasonry, Ceremonial Magic, and the writings of occult expert Aleister Crowley.

 

His work has faced some criticism. There have been some who claimed that Gardner made up Wicca entirely, and still others say he took credit for the work done by Aleister Crowley. These charges are probably not true, but even if there were, Gardner’s impact on modern Wicca cannot be denied.

 

Often referred to as the “Father of Wicca”, Gerald Gardner is respected within most Wiccan circles today.

 

Raymond Buckland and Wicca in North America

 

In North America, the first person to publically admit to being Wiccan was Raymond Buckland. Initiated by High Priestess Monique Wilson in Scotland in 1963, Buckland returned home to the United States shortly after. He brought Gardnerian Wicca with him, founding the first lineaged Gardnerian coven in the US.

 

Buckland is an author of some repute. He first began publishing in 1969 with A Pocket Guide to the Supernatural. He published several more books in the following years, and has published a book in almost every year since this time. Though he is best known for Buckland’s Complete Guide to Witchcraft, first published in 1986, he is currently the author of more than forty books.

 

In 1973, Buckland founded his own Wiccan tradition. Seax-Wica (Seax Wicca) is based upon symbolism from Anglo-Saxon sources, but it does not claim to be a reconstruction of any religion practiced during that era. The entire tradition was published in his book The Tree: The Complete Book of Saxon Witchcraft. Today, Seax-Wica has thousands of practitioners around the world.

 

There are many other people who have contributed to Wicca’s growth and expansion in the 20th century, such as Scott Cunningham, Sybil Leek, Gavin and Yvonne Frost, and Janet and Stewart Farrar. Modern Wicca survived the 20th century through the efforts of many people who are dedicated to its beliefs and practices.

The History of Wicca: The Malleus Maleficarum

In 1486, two German monks wrote a book that was soon to become infamous. Jakob Sprenger and Heinrich (Institor) Kramer created the Malleus Maleficarum (The Witches’ Hammer) to give very definite instructions for the persecution of witchcraft during the Witch Trials. This book only ignited the already delicate situation in Europe, adding fuel to the raging persecution of innocents.

The Witches’ Hammer was divided very carefully into three separate parts.

The First Part of the Malleus Maleficarum

The first section of this book concludes that there are three things that must be present for witchcraft to be practiced. These are:

• A witch;
• The Devil; and
• The permission of God.

The Malleus Maleficarum declares that to not believe in witchcraft must be heresy. It goes on to discuss several matters regarding what witches can and cannot do. Some items prominently discussed are:

• A witch’s copulation with the Devil;
• Whether witches can impede the ability to have children;
• Whether children can be produced by Incubi and Succubi;
• The various ways in which witches can kill children in the womb; and
• Whether witches can sway the minds of men.

This first part of the infamous book has several chapters addressing the sexual aspects of witchcraft, revealing a certain obsession of the authors.

 

The Second Part of the Malleus Maleficarum

 

There is much detail concerning how witchcraft is worked, how it can be detected, and the ways in which it may be undone or warded against. This is the purview of the second section of the Malleus Maleficarum. Most of the items dealt with here are pulled simply from the imagination of the authors. For example, there is a chapter that focuses purely on how witches entice innocents to follow them, making a pact with evil. This, of course, is the purest nonsense.

 

There are many other interesting, yet completely incorrect details in this section of the Malleus Maleficarum. For example:

• How witches transport from place to place in an instant;
• The ways in which witches are able to prevent a woman from conceiving;
• How witches, in the guise of midwives, kill children or offer them to devils; and
• The various means of controlling the weather and animals.

Following these descriptions of the powers of witches are remedies for each.

 

The Third Part of the Malleus Maleficarum

 

This is by far the most famous section of the book. It is in the third section of the Malleus Maleficarum where you can find descriptions relating to the prosecution of witches, both in civil and clerical courts. Trials are explained in detail, beginning with an account of who the proper judges for a trial of this kind might be. From there, the book continues:

• Beginning the trial process;
• The examination of witnesses; and
• Eliciting a confession.

It should be noted that the Malleus Maleficarum suggests that the testimony of anyone should be accepted. Even those who could give testimony in no other case were permitted to speak when it came to trials regarding witchcraft. Mortal enemies, criminals, and even children could testify, and their words would be taken as evidence against the accused.

 

The Malleus Maleficarum was submitted to the University of Cologne, the appointed censor of the time, for approval. However, the Theological Faculty refused to acknowledge the ridiculous work. Undaunted, Kramer and Sprenger simply forged the approbation of the entire faulty. Unfortunately, this forgery was not discovered until the year 1898. By then, the damage had been done, and the Witch Trials continued upon their timeline.

 

It would be hundreds of years before the persecutions would die down enough for some of the beliefs from early Europe to be resurrected. When they were, in the 20th century, one of the new adaptations was Wicca.

The History of Wicca — The Witch Trials

Far after the coming of Christianity, and with the introduction of the bull against witches by Pope Innocent VIII in 1484, the hysteria regarding witches and other pagans began to rise. The smear campaigns carried over from early Europe right into the Middle Ages. Then, in the 15th and 16th centuries, actions against the so-called ‘witches’ became truly violent.

Heinrich Insititoris Kramer and Jakob Sprenger

In 1486, two German monks who would later become infamous, produced an incredibly anti-witch book. Heinrich Kramer and Jakob Sprenger wrote the Malleus Maleficarum (The Witches’ Hammer), which was a concoction full of ideas regarding the proper persecution of witches. This book, which was composed of three parts, covered such things as:

• Various ways in which witches may kill children conceived in the womb;
• Whether witches can sway the minds of men;
• How witches prevent procreation; and
• The proper way to persecute and punish witches.

This book was submitted to the appointed censor of the time, the University of Cologne. However, the majority of the professors refused to have anything to do with such a dubious work. They refused approbation for the Malleus Maleficarum. Undaunted, Kramer and Sprenger simply forged the approval of the entire faculty. Unfortunately, this forgery was not discovered until 1898. By then, the damage had been done.

 

The Impact of the Malleus Maleficarum

 

The publication of The Witches’ Hammer ignited hysteria across most of Europe. For nearly three hundred years, suspected pagans and witches were actively targeted; it didn’t seem to matter if anyone was actually guilty or not. Entire villages, suspected of being under the influence of witchcraft, were put to death.

 

As an example, in 1586, the archbishop of Treves concluded that witches were responsible for the severe winter in his region. After using torture to obtain ‘confessions’ from 120 men and women, he executed these alleged witches. They were all burned to death, as the law dictated. At the time, the laws in Scotland and Continental Europe enforced burning at the stake, while England and New England hung witches instead.

 

There are many estimates regarding the number of people actually killed during the Witch Trials. Numbers as high as 9 million have been suggested. Most likely, the number is approximately 500,000. Obviously, these could not all have been pagans or witches. In truth, there were probably only a very few pagans and witches actually killed during this time. Most people executed for witchcraft would have been God-fearing people.

 

Very often, the charge of witchcraft was used to get rid of someone who could not otherwise be targeted. There was virtually no defense against witchcraft. Once you were accused, you were almost certain to be found guilty. However, being accused of witchcraft wasn’t an automatic death sentence. Only 48%-50% of trials ended in execution. Others were given what were seen as ‘appropriate’ punishments, such as:

• Flogging;
• Stoning;
• Public humiliation; or
• Loss of all status and material wealth.

The timeline of the Witch Trials is somewhat difficult to pin down, as not everything was properly recorded. However, it is certain that as Europe was caught in the fires of persecution, many innocent people were killed.

 

In 1604 King James I passed the Witchcraft Act, which promised harsh sentences for anyone convicted of witchcraft. However, in 1736 this was repealed and replaced with an act that declared witchcraft did not exist, and to pretend to have occult powers was to face being charged with fraud. By this point, belief in witchcraft had faded into the background, but it never really disappeared.

 

For many years, it was thought that the beliefs of old Europe had been left in the past. However, belief doesn’t die that easily. The beliefs were dormant, passed on by a dedicated few, only to be revived and adapted in the 20th century. One of these adaptations was a ‘New Age’ religion known as Wicca.

 

The History of Wicca — The Coming of Christianity

When Christianity arrived in Europe, there was not the immediate mass conversion that is sometimes suggested. Christianity had not evolved naturally over thousands of years. Instead, it was a man-made religion, one that took a great deal of time to reach the masses. Sometimes, entire countries would be classified as Christian when, in fact, only the rulers had converted, and often only superficially. For the first thousand years of Christianity, the pagan religions of early Europe were still highly prominent.

Attempts at Mass Conversion in Europe

One attempt at mass conversion was made by Pope Gregory the Great. He ordered the building of Christian churches on the sites of older pagan temples and groves. He instructed that all idols were to be smashed, and the sites sprinkled with holy water prior to construction to purify them of ‘unholy’ energy. To a large extent, Pope Gregory appeared to have been successful in his attempt to convert most of Europe.

Appearances can be deceiving, however. When these early churches were being constructed, the best artisans were from pagan religions. These artisans incorporated much of their own symbolism into the holy sites, symbolism which can still be seen today in churches from that era. In this way, pagans could easily go to church and worship their own deities. It was the essence, not the form, that was important to the pagans.

Claims of Devil-Worshiping in Early Europe

Christianity was gaining in strength, but slowly. It still was in its infancy, and perceived the pagan religions as a threat. It’s only natural to want to eliminate a threat. The Church had an effective way to attempt to do that, as the gods of the old religion often become the demons of the new. In the case of paganism, the God of the Hunt served well enough as the Christian Devil. He had horns and to someone who knew no better, he could appear quite frightening.

By drawing this parallel, the Church was able to brand all pagans as devil worshipers. Eventually, this label was applied to anyone who worshiped a god or gods different than the Christian one. In this way, the Church was able to justify its attempt at converting innocent people. This old stereotype has endured, and today, practitioners of many pagan religions, including Wicca, are accused of devil worship.

As Christianity grew in strength, it slowly pushed the pagans to the brink. By the time of the Witch Trials, many pagans had moved out of polite society to take up residence in the country. Though the pagans of Europe presented no threat to the Church, it wasn’t long after the claims of devil worship that the beginnings of the Witch Trials started to emerge.

The History of Wicca — Religion in Early Europe

As ancient man developed, so did religion. While the people spread across Europe, they slowly developed a belief in the afterlife as they adapted and evolved. As they evolved, the Goddess and the God of ancient times also evolved. The God of the Hunt slowly became the God of Nature and Death. At the same time, the Goddess of Fertility also became the Goddess of Rebirth.

The Development of Burial Rituals

Evidence supporting the idea that ancient man believed in a life after death can be found in the burial customs of approximately 20,000 BCE and beyond. The Gravettians were the true innovators of burial customs, burying their dead with full clothing and ornaments. They would even sprinkle their dead with red ochre, giving the skin the appearance of life.

Family members were often buried under the hearth, keeping them close to their loved ones. A man would often be buried with his weapons and tools, perhaps even with his dog. A woman might be buried with cooking implements. Everyone was given what ancient man believed he or she would need in the afterlife.

The Connection Between Dreams and a Belief in the Afterlife

Dreams are much like death. To the outsider, you appear to be almost dead as you sleep, though you do breathe and even move slightly. And yet, upon waking, you can tell of many things. You meet people, some of whom might be truly dead, you see trees and grass and buildings, and you have a multitude of experiences, some of which are fantastical.

Others also experience dreams, as did the ancients. Ancient man would have seen dreams as evidence that another world must exist, a world that is both incorporeal and invisible. Since the dead could sometimes be encountered there, then it must be the land of the dead. And since the people here obviously had clothing and tools, then the departed must require these things in the afterlife.

The Priesthood in Early Europe

The people of early Europe practiced magick and developed a great many rituals. They had rituals for fertility, for hunting, for battle, and for ensuring the continuity of their own people. To administer these rituals, a priesthood developed. In some areas of Europe, these ritual leaders became known as the Wita.

As a group, the Wita would be known as the Witan, the Council of the Wise. In days of old, these respected people were doctors, magicians, lawyers, and priests. They were consulted by kings and emperors, and were the connection to the gods for their people.

Before the coming of Christianity, early Europe was a scattering of different pagan religions. There was no centralization of these religions, and so they evolved separately from each other. However, though these religions sometimes differed in form, they were the same in essence. And they are, in part, the inspiration for modern Wicca.

The History of Wicca — The Goddess and the God in Ancient Times

Early man was mostly concerned with survival. The people who existed twenty-five thousand years ago depended upon hunting. Only through a successful hunt could they gain food, skins for warmth, and bones for tools and weapons. Nature was the source of all they had, but it was also overwhelming. Each element of nature was ascribed a deity. There was a god of wind, a god of waters, a god of lightning, and many more. But, more important than any of these was the God of Hunting

The God of the Hunt in Paleolithic Religion

Most of the animals early man hunted for food were horned, so the God of Hunting was seen as horned. Early man also mixed magick with their basic belief in the Hunting God. Specifically, they used sympathetic magick. In simple terms, sympathetic magick is the idea that like attracts like. If clay was fashioned into the shape of a bison, and this model was ritually killed, it was believed that the hunt would be more successful.

True ritual began with the worship of the God of the Hunt. Early man would wear animal skins and antlers and play the part of the Hunting God. Cave painting of such rituals still exist. These paintings show a strong connection with the God of Hunting and his power over the hunt. This form of sympathetic magick is still performed in some areas of the world.

The Goddess of Fertility in Paleolithic Religion

Along with a Hunting God, there was also a Fertility Goddess. It is unclear which one was worshipped first, or whether they developed together. In the end, it doesn’t matter. If animals were to provide food and other necessities, those animals had to breed. If the tribes were to survive and even thrive, then the women had to have children. Fertility was an inherent part of life.

Sympathetic magick again was used to help ensure this fertility. Carvings and cave paintings have been found that resemble mating animals, and during ritual, various members of the tribe would copulate in an attempt to invoke the Goddess of Fertility. Early man was very concerned with the fertility aspect of the female form, as women were the bearers and nurturers of the children of the tribe.

The Division of the Year in Paleolithic Times

In time, the Goddess assumed an even more powerful role. With the rise of agriculture, the Goddess was said to watch over the fertility of the crops, in addition to the fertility of animals and of the tribe itself. In the summer, the Goddess was seen as the giver of life and sustenance, watching over the crops and domesticated animals. When winter came, the God took over, as hunting was absolutely necessary to survive the harsh winter months.

The year was divided into a light half and a dark half. During the light half of the year, through the summer months, the Goddess held sway. She was worshipped as the bringing of fertility, and the nurturer of the tribe. The winter was considered to be the dark half of the year. During this time, the God was all-powerful. He ruled over the animals that the tribe relied upon for food, and protected those who participated in the hunt.

The Goddess of Fertility and the God of the Hunt were the most important deities to ancient man, and continued to have some importance as religion developed in early Europe. While there were other gods and goddesses, they paled in comparison. The God and Goddess of ancient times are still honored by many people today, and these nature deities are the foundation of Wiccan worship.

The History of Magick: Magick Around the World

Magick has been practiced in all cultures and by all religions. From cave paintings to the casting of spells to elaborate church rituals, magick has been present in all civilizations, and it is still practiced today.

Magick in Ancient Times

There are many indications that magick was practiced in ancient times. For example, there are paintings in caves showing depictions of animals being chased by hunters, and often being slaughtered by them. There are many other paintings as well, showing many things. It is highly unlikely that these were simply utilized for decoration.

An array of ancient artifacts that have been discovered; many of these objects suggest that ancient societies had a sense of spiritualism and it's believed that some may have utilized magick and ritual. Small bones that represent the phases of the moon. Small carved animals that may have been worn as pendants. Skulls and other bones that have obviously been carefully arranged.

It seems likely that these had ritual or magickal significance. The magick of ancient people may have served an array of purposes, such as to honor spirits and gain their protection, to ensure a successful hunt, or to promote the fertility of both their own people and the land they relied upon. However, this is but speculation, for true evidence of this time is elusive.

Magick in Mesopotamia

The magick of Mesopotamia, including Sumer, Babylonia, and Assyria, was powerful and well-respected in the ancient world. In Babylonia, for example, it's said that magicians could banish evil, heal the sick, and invoke the power of the gods.

It's believed that some of the magicians of Mesopotamia were also astrologers, and among the first to predict the future by the use of animals entrails. Many specialized in the creation of protective charms and amulets.

Magick in Ancient Egypt

The magick of the Egyptians was tied to the cycles of nature. They knew that spirits followed a cycle of life, death, and rebirth, and their magick focused on this. They used their magick to protect the body on its journey to the afterlife, and sometimes they created amulets or talismans that could take the place of a damaged organ if it was necessary.

The Egyptians has other magick as well. They firmly believed in the idea of replication magick. That is, they felt that if they created something, such as a false door, it was as effective as the real thing, since all matter was essentially spirit. The Egyptians developed a great variety of magicks, for they embraced the new, but never discarded the old.

Magick in Ancient Europe

Little in ancient Europe that was recorded. Most of what was written down was done so by the enemies of the people native to Europe, or by those of a religion so different that they couldn’t begin to understand the practices of the native people. So some of the practices of the Norsemen and the Celts may be lost to time.

Educated guesses can be made. That the Druids were well versed in plant lore seems fairly certain, as is the fact that they believed that each species of tree had a spirit and purpose. It can be assumed that the people of northern Europe also practiced magick relating to animal totems, based upon clan surnames and horned masks.

Magick in Ancient Greece and Rome

Greece was a powerful seat of science in the ancient world. And yet, its scientists firmly believed in magick as well. Some of them were even magicians themselves. They spoke of horoscopes, divination, healing, and necromancy in the same breath as logic, geometry, and architecture.

In early Rome, magick and religion were intertwined. Legionnaires would wear pendants sacred to Mars, the Roman God of War, for protection in battle. The healers of Rome often used remedies that combined herbology and the phases of the moon. Some of these were highly effective.

Magick and the Rise of the Church

Emperor Constantine of Rome converted to Christianity, and declared magick illegal throughout the Empire. This put magick, in all its various forms, in jeopardy. As this religion swept through Europe, overzealous churchmen lashed out at all who did not accept the authority of the church.

The Crusades against ‘infidels’ in the east was quickly followed by the European Inquisition. All those who were either heretics or practitioners of magick became targets. Though the practice of magick did survive, its development was severely curtailed by the policies of the Church of Rome. This continued for several hundred years.

The Rise of Magick in the Modern World

The Age of Enlightenment, during which magick had been forced into secrecy, brought about an interesting time. During the Industrial Age of the 1800s, people began looking to the mystic arts once again. New orders of Druids arose, and divination became quite fashionable. Magickal groups thrived, and orders such as the Golden Dawn quickly became well-known.

In the 1900s, after the passing of World Wars I and II, this interest in the occult intensified. A man named Gerald Gardner was reinventing magickal practice in Britain, and in doing so, created what would become modern Wicca. This quickly spread to other parts of the world, including North America. At the same time, Asatru, Druidism, Goddess spirituality, and other magickal groups appeared. These and others now make up the modern magickal community.

Magick has always existed, and has always been a part of the world. Though sometimes overshadowed by science, it is quickly becoming acceptable in the greater world community once again.